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Health Effects of Radiation: Dose and Risk

(last updated 9 Feb 2008)

General
Radionuclide decay data
Radionuclide decay computing software: Online calculators
Overview of health effects
Exposure factors
Biokinetic modeling
Dose factors
Risk coefficients
Remediation goals
Dose calculation software: Online calculators · Programs
Dose modeling software: Online calculators · Programs

> see also:

General

ORNL Rad Toolbox
This toolbox provides ready access to data of interest in radiation protection of workers and members of the public. This package was developed by the ORNL Center for Biokinetic and Dosimetric Research for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and is documented in ORNL/TM-2004/27 (581k PDF). The software runs on a PC under Windows 98/NT/2000/XP to provide access to the data through a single graphical user interface. Selected data can be exported to Excel files.
The data include dose coefficients for intakes of radionuclides, exposure to radionuclides distributed in the environment, and for exposures to photon and neutron radiation fields. Other supportive data include interaction coefficients for alpha, electron, photon and neutron radiations, nuclear decay data, biological and physiological data, and supplemental information on various topics.
Note 1: The ORNL TM report is included in the download.
Note 2: During the installation elect to "ignore" any messages regarding file updates.
> Download: Rad Toolbox (ORNL) · alternate source (NRC)

Radionuclide decay data

Characteristics of important radionuclides (85k, Table B.1 - DOE EM IDB97)
NuDat Radioactive Decay Data (Lund Nuclear Data WWW Service)
[interactive lookup of decay data from the NuDat database - requires JavaScript]
Chart of the Nuclides (BNL)
[interactive lookup of nuclide data, including data on half-lives, decay energies, fission yields and nuclear cross-sections]
RADDECAY code
This free DOS program displays half-lifes, branching, decay products, decay energies for 497 radionuclides. It is an older version of a program commercially available from Grove Engineering, Rockville, MD.
Download RADDECAY 2.02 code · alternate source
Caution: this DOS code is not Year 2000 compliant. Only runs with system time earlier than 2000.
A patch rad2000.zip is available from Aware Electronics Corp.
Caution: some half-lives in this code contain typos; for example, the half life of U-236 is listed as 3.415 million years rather than 23.415 million years.
RADIATION DECAY code
This free WINDOWS® 3.1 program displays half-lifes, branching, decay chains, decay energies for 497 radionuclides; also searches nuclides for given photon energy
Download RADIATION DECAY · alternate source · alternate source (285k, ZIP)
Caution: some half-lives in this code contain typos; for example, the half life of U-236 is listed as 3.415 million years rather than 23.415 million years.
CHAINS code
This free DOS program displays information on half-lives, branching fractions, and cumulative emitted energies (data from ICRP Publication 38).
The CHAINS code is contained in ORNL's DFACT package: download DFACT codes · alternate source
DexRax Code
The computer code DexRax extracts nuclear decay data for user specific radionuclides, providing complete listings of the types of radiations, their energies and absolute intensities, and the composite beta spectra for nuclides undergoing beta-decay.
The DexRax code is part of ORNL's ICRP38 package for Windows: download ICRP38 codes (2.5MB).
RadSum Code
The utility RadSum summarizes the emissions for the user specified nuclide.
The RadSum code is part of ORNL's ICRP38 package for Windows: download ICRP38 codes (2.5MB).
WinChain Code
The WinChain code assembles the decay chain for the user specified nuclide. The code also provides guidance in truncation of the decay chain assuming on the parent nuclide was present at time zero.
The WinChain code is part of ORNL's ICRP38 package for Windows: download ICRP38 codes (2.5MB).

Radionuclide decay computing software

Online calculators

Uranium Decay Calculator
This JavaScript-based Calculator computes radioactive decay and ingrowth of uranium and its decay products for a variety of nuclide mixes found in the nuclear fuel industry. Covers the natural U-238 and U-235 series, and the artificial U-236 and U-232 series.
Universal Decay Calculator
This JavaScript-based Calculator computes radioactive decay and ingrowth of decay products for any mix out of 497 radionuclides. It also allows for lookup of decay data (half-life, branching, and decay products) for any nuclide.
Unit Converter

Overview of health effects

U.S.EPA/ORD/NCEA Integrated Risk Information System: IRIS
- Uranium (natural) · Uranium (soluble salts) · Radium-226/228 · Radon- 222
U.S.Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: ATSDR
- Public Health Statements: Uranium · Thorium · Radium · Radon
- Final Toxicological Profile for Uranium, 1999 (see details)
U.S. EPA Air Toxics Website: ATW
- Health Effect Fact Sheets: Radionuclides (uranium, radium, radon)
U.S. EPA: Comparison of Health Risks Arising From the Radiological and Chemical Toxicity of Uranium, Appendix F of Radiation Site Cleanup Regulations: Technical Support Document For The Development Of Radionuclide Cleanup Levels For Soil, Review Draft, EPA 402-R-96-011 A, September 1994.
Download (select file appf.pdf from 1.9M ZIP-archive)
Comparing Chemical and Radiation Risk Management (Environmental Law Institute)

> see also extra page on Uranium Toxicity

Exposure factors

U.S. EPA/ORD/NCEA: Exposure Factors Handbook
[provides data for drinking water consumption, soil ingestion, inhalation rates, and dermal factors, including skin area and soil adherence factors, food ingestion, human activity factors, consumer product use, and reference residence.]
(see also: U.S. EPA/ORD/NCEA: Exposure Factors Handbook (Draft) , August 1996)

Biokinetic modeling

Uranium Biokinetics Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator performs calculations of the biokinetic behaviour of uranium intakes by inhalation or ingestion. It applies the full biokinetic model for uranium in the human body, as developed by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
WinAct
This package is the ORNL numerical solver (Windows version) for the coupled set of differential equations describing the kinetics of a radionuclide in the body. Several example input files are provided as a guide in using the package.
Biokinetic Models for Radium and Uranium
[interactive execution of the ACTLITE computer model for ingestion and inhalation, based on ICRP 67 and 69]
Biokmod
[free biokinetic modeling scripts for use with the commercial Mathematica software]
BiokmodWeb
[online calculators including some features of the Biokmod model]
MONDAL2 - Support System for Internal Dosimetry
National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
[free biokinetic software (Windows) for ICRP model]
Graphs of Predicted Monitoring Data
National Institute of Radiological Sciences, Japan
[online display of biokinetic calculation results for ICRP model]

Dose factors

U.S. EPA: Federal Guidance Report No. 11: Limiting Values of Radionuclide Intake and Air Concentration and Dose Conversion Factors for Inhalation, Submersion, and Ingestion, EPA 520/1-88-020, September 1988
> download full text (8.9M PDF ZIPed)
> interactive lookup of FGR 11 dose factors for internal exposure
Internal Dose Factors: DFINT code
The free DFINT (Dose Factor INTernal) code is used to view the full set of dose coefficients of ICRP Publication 30, Parts 1 - 4 for inhalation and ingestion intakes of radionuclides. The coefficients, in abridged form, appeared in the supplements to ICRP-30 and in EPA Federal Guidance Report No. 11. Easy toggling between the old (ICRP 26/30) and new (ICRP 60/61) dose factors is possible.
The DFINT code is contained in ORNL's DFACT package: download DFACT codes · alternate source
Uranium series ICRP 60/61 dose coefficients
U.S. EPA: Federal Guidance Report No. 12: External Exposures to Radionuclides in Air; Water; and Soil, EPA 402-R-93-081, September 1993
> download full text (1081k - PDF format)
> interactive lookup of FGR 12 dose factors for external exposure
External Dose Factors: DFEXT code
The free DFEXT (Dose Factor EXTernal) code views a set of dose rate coefficients, or dose per unit integrated exposure for tissues of the body irradiated by nuclides distributed in the environment. The coefficients are those contained in EPA Federal Guidance Report No. 12. Easy toggling between the old (ICRP 26) and new (ICRP 60) dose factors is possible.
The DFEXT code is contained in ORNL's DFACT package: download DFACT codes · alternate source
Internal and External Dose Factors: DCFPAK code
DCFPAK is a collection of data files and supportive software written to facilitate use of the dosimetric coefficients from the Federal Guidance Report series in radiological assessment codes. The package includes an illustrative FORTRAN module designed to access that data files and return the relevant information to the user's assessment code.
> Download DCFPAK code for MS-DOS (1MB, ORNL)
IAEA RasaNet Dose Factors : Public (Ingestion) · Public (Inhalation) · Workers
[interactive lookup of dose factors based on ICRP68/72]
Uranium series ICRP 68 dose coefficients for workers
Uranium series ICRP 72 dose coefficients for the public
Acute Dose Calculator
The AcutDose code computes age-specific absorbed dose coefficients (in Gy/Bq) for specified times after inhalation and ingestion intakes of radionuclides. The user can specify the time period over which the absorbed dose rate data is integrated to calculate the dose coefficient. Separate coefficients are derived for low and high LET radiations emitted by the radionuclides. Such coefficients may be used to assess potential early (deterministic) health effects.
AcutDose uses absorbed dose rate data for inhalation and ingestion intakes of radionuclides that were computed during the preparation of Federal Guidance Report 13 (EPA, 1999).
> Download Acute Dose Calculator (US EPA)

Risk coefficients

U.S. EPA: Cancer Risk Coefficients for Environmental Exposure to Radionuclides, Federal Guidance Report No. 13
Radionuclide-Specific Lifetime Radiogenic Cancer Risk Coefficients for the U.S. Population, Based on Age-Dependent Intake, Dosimetry, and Risk Models;
by Keith F. Eckerman, Richard W. Leggett, Christopher B. Nelson, Jerome S. Puskin, Allan C. B. Richardson; EPA-402-R-99-001, Washington DC, September 1999, 335 p.
> download full text: from EPA site (3.1M - PDF)
U.S. EPA: Estimating Radiogenic Cancer Risks, June 1994, EPA 402-R-93-076
Download (278k - PDF) [contains Radionuclide Risk Coefficient Tables (average lifetime mortality and morbidity (incidence) risk coefficients for 321 radionuclides]
U.S. EPA: Estimating Radiogenic Cancer Risks Addendum: Uncertainty Analysis, May 1999, EPA 402-R-99-003
Download (153 k, PDF)
Risk Coefficients: DFINT and DFEXT codes
The DFINT and DFEXT codes (see above) allow for display of the risk of a cancer fatality and health detriment per unit activity inhaled or ingested or per unit integrated exposure respectively. The values are based on the dose coefficients displayed and the health risk data of Table B-20 of ICRP Publication 60.
The DFINT and DFEXT codes are contained in the DFACT package: download DFACT codes
FGR13CD code
This is a Windows viewer software of the risk coefficients tabulated in Federal Guidance Report 13 and the age-specific dose coefficients calculated during the course of preparing Report 13.
> Download FGR13CD (19.4MB, ORNL)
U.S. EPA: Health Effects Assessment Summary Factors - HEAST
[EPA classifies all radionuclides as Group A carcinogens. HEAST Table 4 lists ingestion, inhalation and external exposure cancer slope factors for radionuclides in units of picocuries (pCi). Ingestion and inhalation slope factors are central estimates in a linear model of the age-averaged, lifetime attributable radiation cancer incidence (fatal and nonfatal cancer) risk per unit of activity inhaled or ingested, expressed as risk/pCi. External exposure slope factors are central estimates of lifetime attributable radiation cancer incidence risk for each year of exposure to external radiation from photon-emitting radionuclides distributed uniformly in a thick layer of soil, and are expressed as risk/yr per pCi/gram soil. When combined with site-specific media concentration data and appropriate exposure assumptions, slope factors can be used to estimate lifetime cancer risks to members of the general population due to radionuclide exposures.]

Remediation goals

U.S. EPA: Preliminary Remediation Goals for Radionuclides in Buildings (BPRG)
see also: U.S. EPA Radionuclide Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRGs) for Superfund Electronic Calculator
see also: U.S. EPA Radionuclide ARAR Dose Compliance Concentrations (DCCs) for Superfund

Dose calculation software

Calculate radiation dose from intake of a known amount of radionuclides.

Online dose calculators

Uranium Radiation Individual Dose Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator performs radiation dose calculations for individuals exposed to known concentrations of uranium and/or its decay products. The calculator handles four different exposure situations: ingestion and inhalation at known uranium intake rates, external exposure from contaminated soil, and external exposure from a point source.
For an assessment of future exposure situations (waste management!), time delays can be selected, for taking decay and ingrowth of nuclides into account. The set of dose coefficients used can easily be switched between ICRP 60/61 and ICRP 68/72.
Uranium Radiation Age-specific Dose Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator calculates the age-specific radiation dose caused from ingestion or inhalation of a certain amount of uranium. This allows to determine situations where the standard adult is not the receiver of the highest dose.
Uranium Radiation Organ Dose Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator calculates the organ-specific radiation dose caused from uptake of a certain amount of uranium. This allows to determine the risk of contracting a certain type of cancer.
Radon Individual Dose Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator performs radiation dose and health risk calculations for individuals exposed to known concentrations of Radon-222 and its decay products.
Uranium Miner Health Risk Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator determines the health risk for a uranium miner with a known radiation exposure history, and, in case he has contracted cancer, the probability of this cancer being caused by the radiation exposure. Covers lung cancer and a number of other cancers.
NIOSH-IREP online calculator
This computer software is a tool that allows U.S. Department of Labor to determine the probability a cancer was caused by a person's radiation dose from nuclear weapons production work.
The calculator only works online.
> for details, see: NIOSH Office of Compensation Analysis and Support - Interactive RadioEpidemiological Program (OCAS-IREP)
Radiation Dose to Risk Converter
This JavaScript-based calculator determines the health risk associated with a given radiation dose.
Unit Converter for Radiation Dose Units

Dose calculation programs

Dose and Risk Calculation software (DCAL)
DCAL is a comprehensive software system for the calculation of tissue dose and subsequent health risk from intakes of radionuclides or exposure to radionuclides present in environmental media. DCAL was developed for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The software runs on a PC under Windows 98/NT/2000/XP. The system includes extensive libraries of biokinetic and dosimetric data and models representing the current state of the art. DCAL maybe used either in an interactive mode or in a batch mode and is intended for experienced users with knowledge of computational dosimetry.
> Download: DCAL software · DCAL User's Guide (621k PDF) (ORNL)

Dose modeling software

Calculate radiation dose received via certain pathways from a source of radiation.

Online dose modeling calculators

External Radiation Dose Calculator (Virtual Geiger Counter)
This JavaScript-based calculator determines the radiation dose from a shielded gamma source. Examples for calculations include: Gamma radiation on a bare or covered uranium mill tailings pile, Gamma radiation near transport containers carrying uranium ore, U₃O₈, UF₆, or the like, and Gamma radiation from a depleted uranium penetrator lying on the ground, or buried in the ground.
Uranium in Soil Individual Dose Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator determines the radiation dose and risk for an individual living on soil contaminated from uranium (residential exposure scenario). It covers the following pathways: ingestion of soil, inhalation of fugitive dusts, external exposure, ingestion of produce grown in the soil, ingestion of contaminated groundwater, and inhalation of radon.
Uranium Mine and Mill Resident Individual Dose Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator performs individual dose and health risk calculations from inhalation of radon and uranium dust for a person living nearby a uranium mine, mill and associated tailings pile.
Nuclear Fuel Health Risk Calculator
This JavaScript-based calculator performs collective dose and health risk calculations for the general population from production and use of nuclear fuel. The focus is on the front end of the nuclear chain, while some summary values for reactor operation and reactor waste are included for comparison.
Soil Screening Calculations for Radionuclides (scroll down for calculator)
This online calculator is based on U.S. EPA's Soil Screening Guidance and determines risk-based, site-specific soil screening levels (SSLs) for contaminants in soil that may be used to identify areas needing further investigation at National Priorities List (NPL - "Superfund") sites.
Exposure pathways covered:
- Direct ingestion of soil
- Inhalation of fugitive dusts
- External radiation exposure from photon-emitting radionuclides in soil
- Ingestion of homegrown produce that has been contaminated via plant uptake
- Ingestion of contaminated ground water caused by migration of radionuclides through soil to an underlying potable aquifer
The calculator only works online.
Caution: This calculator produces erroneous output, if the activity unit Bq, rather than pCi is selected.
U.S. EPA Radionuclide Preliminary Remediation Goals (PRGs) for Superfund Electronic Calculator (select 'PRG Search' for calculator)
> Download Memorandum re distribution of this calculator (Feb. 7, 2002) (100k PDF)
This online calculator provides information on establishing preliminary remediation goals (PRGs) for radionuclides at CERCLA sites with radioactive contamination. The calculator presents standardized exposure parameters and equations that should be used for calculating radionuclide PRGs for residential, commercial/industrial, and agricultural land use exposures, tap water and fish ingestion exposures, and migration of radionuclides through the unsaturated zone.
The calculator only works online.
Caution: This calculator produces erroneous output, if the activity unit Bq, rather than pCi is selected.
U.S. EPA Radionuclide ARAR Dose Compliance Concentrations (DCCs) for Superfund (select "DCC search" for calculator)
This electronic calculator is intended to help site decision makers demonstrate compliance with dose-based Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs) at radioactively contaminated Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA) sites. It presents standardized exposure parameters and equations that should be used for calculating radionuclide DCCs for residential, commercial/industrial, and agricultural land use exposures, tap water and fish ingestion exposures.

Dose modeling programs

MILDOS-AREA
The MILDOS-AREA computer code calculates the radiological dose commitments received by individuals and the general population within an 80-km radius of an operating uranium recovery facility. In addition, air and ground concentrations of radionuclides are estimated for individual locations, as well as for a generalized population grid. Extra-regional population doses resulting from transport of radon and export of agricultural produce are also estimated. Only airborne releases of radioactive materials are considered in MILDOS-AREA; releases to surface water and to groundwater are not addressed.
This Windows® software was developed on behalf of the U.S. NRC and is available for download from the MILDOS-AREA webpage, provided by Argonne National Laboratory.
Residual Radioactivity (RESRAD)
A U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) computer code to calculate compliance with RESidual RADioactive material guidelines. RESRAD implements the methodology described in: Manual for Implementing Residual Radioactive Material Guidelines, a supplement to U.S. Department of Energy's guidelines for residual radioactive material (DOE Order 5400.5 Chapter IV).
> See also "Probabilistic Modules for the RESRAD and RESRAD-BUILD Computer Codes: User Guide", NUREG/CR-6692, Nov. 2000 (available through ADAMS , Accession Number: ML003774030 )
Decontamination and Decommissioning (DandD)
DandD automates the scenarios, models, mathematical formulations, assumptions, and justifications of parameter selections documented in NUREG/CR-5512, Volume 1 (Residual Radioactive Contamination from Decommissioning. Technical Basis for Translating Contamination Levels to Annual Total Effective Dose Equivalent, Final Report, Vol.1, U.S. NRC, 1993, 334 p.). This generic modeling approach defines radiation exposure scenarios to address residual radioactive contamination inside buildings, in soils, and in groundwater.
This Windows® software was developed by the U.S. NRC and is available for download:
- DandD 1.0 ("Decontamination and Decommissioning Software") (for Windows 3.1 and higher)
- DandD 2.1 (for Windows 95 and higher)
  Version 2.1 allows full probabilistic treatment of dose assessments, whereas, Version 1.0 embodied constant default parameter values only allowing deterministic analyses.
Comparison of the Models and Assumptions used in the DandD 1.0, RESRAD 5.61, and RESRAD-Build Computer Codes with Respect to the Residential Farmer and Industrial Occupant Scenarios Provided in NUREG/CR-5512. Draft Report, October 15, 1998
> View full report (437k)
PRESTO-EPA-CPG/POP
The PRESTO-EPA-CPG/POP model predicts the maximum doses to a member of a critical population group and the cumulative numbers of health effects (cancers and genetic effects) among a general population residing on and downstream of a contaminated soil site, a LLW disposal site, or an agricultural application site. The individuals and populations may be exposed to radioactivity through atmospheric, groundwater, and surface water transport pathways; through drinking water, fish, vegetable, milk, and meat food-chain pathways; and through air immersion and direct external exposure pathways. Exposure through inhalation of dust and radon gas and inadvertent ingestion of soil is also included.
Clean Air Act Assessment Package - 1988 (CAP88-PC)
CAP88-PC is a personal computer software system used for calculating both dose and risk from radionuclide emissions to air. CAP88-PC is an approved system for demonstrating compliance with 40 CFR 61 Subpart H, the Clean Air Act standard which applies to U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) facilities that emit radionuclides to air.
CAP88-PC can be used for assessments of both collective populations and maximally-exposed individuals, and allow full editing of many environmental transport variables.
CAP88-PC uses a modified Gaussian plume equation to estimate the average dispersion of radionuclides released from up to six sources. The sources may be either elevated stacks, such as a smokestack, or uniform area sources, such as a pile of uranium mill tailings. Plume rise can be calculated assuming either a momentum or buoyancy-driven plume. Assessments are done for a circular grid of distances and directions with a radius of 80 kilometers (50 miles) around the facility.
On Feb. 21, 2006, U.S. EPA announced the availability of Version 3 of the CAP88-PC software:
Federal Register: February 21, 2006 (Volume 71, Number 34) p. 8854-8856 (download full text )
The software is available for download from the U.S. EPA Radiological Assessment Software HomePage
GENII - The Hanford Environmental Radiation Dosimetry Software System
The software can be ordered from the Radiation Safety Information Computational Center : CCC-601 MICRO
HOTSPOT Health Physics codes
The Hotspot Health Physics codes were created to provide emergency response personnel and emergency planners with a fast, field-portable set of software tools for evaluating incidents involving radioactive material. The software is also used for safety-analysis of facilities handling nuclear material. Hotspot codes are a first-order approximation of the radiation effects associated with the atmospheric release of radioactive materials. The Hotspot atmospheric dispersion models are designed for a short-term (less than 24 hours) release duration. (See also RSICC description CCC-644 )
Caution: Note for international users: Windows' international control options should be set to English (USA); otherwise problems may occur with numbers containing decimal points.

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Health Effects of Radiation: Dose and Risk

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